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Psychological and Physiological Trauma Research
Seize Your Journeys
_______________________ Traumatic stress is found in many competent, healthy, strong, good people. No one can completely protect themselves from traumatic experiences. Many people have long-lasting problems following exposure to trauma. Up to 8% of persons will have PTSD at some time in their lives. People who react to traumas are not going crazy. What is happening to them is part of a set of common symptoms and problems that are connected with being in a traumatic situation, and thus, is a normal reaction to abnormal events and experiences. Having symptoms after a traumatic event is NOT a sign of personal weakness. Given exposure to a trauma that is bad enough, probably all people would develop PTSD. By understanding trauma symptoms better, a person can become less fearful of them and better able to manage them. By recognizing the effects of trauma and knowing more about symptoms, a person will be better able to decide about getting treatment. _______________________
Secure Attachments as a Defense Against Trauma “All people mature and thrive in a social context that has profound effects on how they cope with life’s stresses. Particularly early in life, the social context plays a critical role in fuffering an individual against stressful situations, and in building the psychological and biological capacities to deal with further stresses. The primary function of parents can be thought of as helping children modulate their arousal by attuned and well-timed provision of playing, feeding, comforting, touching, looking, cleaning, and resting—in short, by teaching them skills that will gradually help them modulate their own arousal. Secure attachment bonds serve as primary defenses against trauma-induced psychopathology in both children and adults (Finkelhor & Browne, 1984). In children who have been exposed to severe stressors, the quality of the parental bond is probably the single most important determinant of long-term damage (McFarlane, 1988).” van der Kolk, Bessel, Alexander C. McFarlane, and Lars Weisaeth, eds. 1996. Traumatic stress: The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body, and society. New York and London: Guilford Press. .p. 185
Eating Disorders “The Eating Disorders are characterized by severe disturbances in eating behavior. This section includes two specific diagnoses, Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa. Anorexia Nervosa is characterized by a refusal to maintain a minimally normal body weight. Bulimia Nervosa is characterized by repeated episodes of binge eating followed by inappropriate compensatory behaviors such as self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or other medications; fasting; or excessive exercise. A disturbance in perception of body shape and weight is an essential feature of both Anorexia Nervosa and Bulimia Nervosa. An Eating Disorder Not Otherwise Specified category is also provided for coding behaviors that do not meet criteria for a specific Eating Disorder. Simple obesity is include in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) as a general medical condition but does not appear in DSM-IV because it has not been established that it is consistently associated with a psychological or behavioral syndrome. However, when there is evidence that psychological factors are of importance in the etiology or course of a particular case of obesity, this can be indicated by noting the presence of Psychological Factors Affecting Medical Condition. Disorders of Feeding and Eating that are usually first diagnosed in infancy or early childhood (i.e., Pica, Rumination Disorder, and Feeding Disorder of Infancy or Early Childhood) are included in the section “Feeding and Eating Disorders of Infancy or Early Childhood. Anorexia Nervosa Diagnostic Features The essential features of Anorexia Nervosa are that the individual refuses to maintain a minimally normal body weight, is intensely afraid of gaining weight, and exhibits a significant disturbance in the perception of the shape or size of his or her body. In addition, postmenarcheal females with this disorder are amenorrheic. (The term anorexia is a misnomer because loss of appetite is rare.) The individual maintains a body weight that is below a minimally normal level for age and height (Criterion A). When Anorexia Nervosa develops in an individual during childhood or early adolescence, there may be failure to make expected weight gains (i.e., while growing in height) instead of weight loss. Criterion A provides a guideline for determining when the individual meets the threshold for being underweight. It suggests that the individual weigh less than 85% of that weight that is considered normal for that person’s age and height (usually computed using one of several published versions of the Metropolitan Life Insurance tables or pediatric growth charts.). An alternative and somewhat stricter guideline (used in the ICD-10 Diagnostic Criteria for research) requires that the individual have a body mass index (BMI) (calculated as weight in kilograms/height in meters2) equal to or below 17.5kg/m2. These cutoffs are provided only as suggested guidelines for eh clinician, since it is unreasonable to specify a single standard for minimally normal weight that applies to all individuals of a given age and height. In determining a minimally normal weight, the clinician should consider not only such guidelines but also the individual’s body build and weight history. Usually weight loss is accomplished primarily through reduction in total food intake. Although individuals may begin by excluding from their diet what they perceive to be highly caloric foods, most eventually end up with a very restricted diet that is sometimes limited to only a few foods. Additional methods of weight loss include purging (i.e., self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxative or diuretics) and increased or excessive exercise.) Individuals with this disorder intensely fear gaining weight or becoming fat (Criterion B). This intense fear of becoming fat is usually not alleviated by the weight loss. In fact, concern about weight gain often increases even as actual weight continues to decrease. The experience and significance of body weight and shape are distorted in these individuals (Criterion C). Some individuals feel globally overweight. Others realize that they are thin but are still concerned that certain parts of their bodies, particularly the abdomen, buttocks, and thighs are “to fat.” They may employ a wide variety of techniques to estimate their body size and weight, including excessive weighing, obsessive measuring of body parts, and persistently using a mirror to check for perceived areas of “fat.” The self-esteem of individuals with Anorexia Nervosa is highly dependent on their body shape and weight. Weight loss is viewed as an impressive achievement and a sign of extraordinary self-discipline, whereas weight gain is perceived as an unacceptable failure of self-control. Though some individuals with this disorder may acknowledge being thin, they typically deny the serious medical implications of their malnourished state. In postmenarcheal females, amenorrhea (due to abnormally low levels of estrogen secretion that are due in turn to diminished pituitary secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone [PSH] and luteinizing hormone [LH]) is an indicator of physiological dysfunction in Anorexia Nervosa (Criterion D.) Amenorrhea is usually a consequence of the weight loss but, in a minority of individuals, may actually precede it. In prepubertal females, menarche may be delayed by the illness. The individual is often brought to professional attention by family members after marked weight loss (or failure to make expected weight gains) has occurred. If individuals seek help on their own, it is usually because of their subjective distress over the somatic and psychological sequelae of starvation. It is rare for an individual with Anorexia Nervosa to complain of weight loss per se. Individuals with Anorexia Nervosa frequently lack insight into, or have considerable denial of, the problem and may be unreliable historians. It is therefore often necessary to obtain information form parents or other outside sources to evaluate the degree of weight loss and other features of the illness.” p. 583-584. Bulimia Nervosa “Diagnostic Features The essential features of Bulimia Nervosa are binge eating and inappropriate compensatory methods to prevent weight gain. In addition, the self-evaluation of individuals with Bulimia Nervosa is excessively influenced by body shape and weight. To qualify for the diagnosis, the binge eating and the inappropriate compensatory behaviors must occur, on average, at least twice a week for 3 months (Criterion C.) A binge is defined as eating in a discrete period of time an amount of food that is definitely larger than most individuals would eat under similar circumstances (Criterion A1.). The clinician should consider the context in which the eating occurred—what would be regarded as excessive consumption at a typical meal might be considered normal during a celebration or holiday meal. A “discrete period of time” refers to a limited period, usually less than 2 hours. A single episode of binge eating need not be restricted to one setting. For example, an individual may begin a binge in a restaurant and then continue it on returning home. Continual snacking on small amounts of food throughout the day would not be considered a binge. Although the type of food consumed during the binge varies, it typically includes sweet, high-calorie foods such as ice cream or cake. However, binge eating appears to be characterized more by an abnormality in the amount of food consumed than by a craving for a specific nutrient, such as carbohydrate. Although individuals with Bulimia Nervosa consume more calories during an episode of binge eating than persons without Bulimia Nervosa consume during a meal, the fractions of calories derived from protein, fat, and carbohydrate are similar. Individuals with Bulimia Nervosa are typically ashamed of their eating problems and attempt to conceal their symptoms. Binge eating usually occurs in secrecy, or as inconspicuously as possible. An episode may or may not be planned in advance and is usually (but not always) characterized by rapid consumption. The binge eating often continues until the individual is uncomfortably, or even painfully, full. Binge eating is typically triggered by dysphoric mood states, interpersonal stressors intense hunger following dietary restraint, or feelings related to body weight, body shape, and food. Binge eating may transiently reduce dysphoria, but disparaging self-criticism and depressed mood often follow. An episode of binge eating is also accompanied by a sense of lack of control (Criterion A2). An individual may be in a frenzied state while binge eating, especially early in the course of the disorder. Some individuals describe a dissociative quality during, or following, the binge episodes. After Bulimia Nervosa has persisted for some time, individuals may report that their binge-eating episodes are no longer characterized by an acute feeling of loss of control, but rather by behavioral indicators of impaired control, such as difficulty resisting binge eating or difficulty stopping a binge once it has begun. The impairment in control associated with binge eating in bulimia Nervosa is not absolute; for example, an individual may continue binge eating while the telephone is ringing, but will cease if a roommate or spouse unexpectedly enters the room. Another essential feature of Bulimia Nervosa is the recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain (Criterion B). Many individuals with Bulimia Nervosa employ several methods in their attempt to compensate for binge eating. The most common compensatory technique is the induction of vomiting after an episode of binge eating. This method of purging is employed by 80%-90% of individuals with Bulimia Nervosa who present for treatment of eating disorders clinics. The immediate effects of vomiting include relief from physical discomfort and reduction of fear of gaining weight. In some cases, vomiting becomes a goal in itself, and the person will binge in order to vomit or will vomit after eating a small amount of food. Individuals with Bulimia Nervosa may use a variety of methods to induce vomiting, including the use of fingers or instruments to stimulate the gag reflex. Individuals generally become adept at inducing vomiting and are eventually able to vomit at will. Rarely, individuals consume syrup of ipecac to induce vomiting. Other purging behaviors include the issue of laxatives and diuretics. Approximately one-third of those with Bulimia Nervosa misuse laxatives after binge eating. Rarely, individuals with the disorder will misuse enemas following episodes of binge eating, but this is seldom the sole compensatory method employed. Individuals with Bulimia Nervosa may fast for a day or more or exercise excessively in an attempt to compensate for binge eating. Exercise may be considered to be excessive when it significantly interferes with important activities, when it occurs at inappropriate times or in inappropriate settings, or when the individual continues to exercise despite injury or other medical complications. Rarely, individuals with this disorder may take thyroid hormone in an attempt to avoid weight gain. Individuals with diabetes mellitus and Bulimia Nervosa may omit or reduce insulin doses in order to reduce the metabolism of food consumed during eating binges. Individuals with Bulimia Nervosa place an excessive emphasis on body shape and weight in their self-evaluation, and these factors are typically the most important ones in determining self-esteem (Criterion D). Individuals with this disorder may closely resemble those with Anorexia Nervosa in their fear of gaining weight, in their desire to lose weight, and in the level of dissatisfaction with their bodies. However, a diagnosis of Bulimia Nervosa should not be given when the disturbance occurs only during episodes of Anorexia Nervosa (Criterion E).” p. 589-591
Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 2000. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
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LifeSpan Developmental Trauma
Resilience and Adaptation
Title: School-based forgiveness education in the management of trait anger in early adolescents. Author(s): Gambaro, Maria Elaine, U Wisconsin - Madison, US Source: Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, Vol 63(11-B), 2003. pp. 5549. Publisher: US: Univ Microfilms International Abstract: This research study examined the role of forgiveness in improving the psychological health of middle school adolescents struggling with generalized anger to determine whether forgiveness would impact a child's overall resiliency, and therefore his or her ability to manage anger and cope with stress. In the entire body of research on forgiveness, this is the first study of middle school children. These children are presumed to be exhibiting aggressive responses as a result of anger that has developed over prior injustices. The child who has been wronged can develop a tendency toward covert or overt hostility characterized by passive or active aggressive behavior, withdrawal, depression low self-concept and/or interpersonal problems. The point of interest in this study was whether or not the introduction of forgiveness could relieve their psychological tension, improve overall social and psychological functioning and thereby reduce the negative consequences of chronic, unresolved anger. The effects of this forgiveness education program were compared to the effects of a Rogerian-based program where forgiveness was not discussed. Forgiveness was proposed as one factor that could strengthen an angry child's response to stressful life events by teaching him or her to perceive these events in less self-destructive ways, thereby preventing response patterns that hinder optimum psychological health for a lifetime. Results showed a significant improvement in the forgiveness program participants compared with the control group on the following variables: attitude to school, attitude to teachers, self-reliance, relationships with parents, interpersonal relationships, trait anger, angry temperament, angry reaction, grades in school, school discipline, and forgiveness. No significant improvements were made in self-esteem, anxiety, or depression. _____
Title: The psychological consequences of community violence exposure: What variables protect children in urban settings? Author(s): Ulschmid, Nancy Kaczmarek, U Wisconsin - Milwaukee, US Source: Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, Vol 62(7-A), Feb 2002. pp. 2354. Publisher: US: Univ Microfilms International Abstract: This study examined the psychological consequences of community violence exposure in 121 students (11-15 years of age) attending public school in a Midwest urban area. The results indicate that students had been exposed to significant levels of community violence in their lifetime that included hearing about or witnessing violence, or direct victimization. Violent events ranged from beatings and serious threats to stabbings, shootings, and killings. Consistent with earlier studies, community violence exposure predicted trauma symptomology in both boys and girls. In general, girls reported a wider range of trauma symptomology than boys. Community violence exposure also predicted a wider range of self-reported psychological maladjustment in girls including sensation-seeking, atypicality, somatization, social stress and inadequacy. Surprisingly, community violence exposure was not predictive of teacher-rated problems, including externalizing, internalizing, or learning problems. Using a model of stress, risk and resiliency, a few risk factors were identified that appear to increase degree of symptomology. Being female and repeated exposure to community violence appeared as important risk factors. Other demographic variables did not appear influential, although being African-American predicted nearly all teacher-rated problems. Protective or resiliency factors including individual, familial and external factors appeared to influence degree of symptomology as well. A high level of self-reported personal resources (self-reliance, interpersonal relations, and relations with parents) predicted a lower level of trauma symptomology. In addition, attitude toward life, school and self effected level of symptomology. Specifically, negative attitudes were predictive of greater PTSD symptomology. Further analyses were conducted to examine possible moderating or mediating effects of these variables. The results suggest that self-reported personal resources had a direct and separate effect on trauma symptomology regardless of violence exposure. In contrast, self-reported negative attitudes about life, school and self appear to have mediated the effects of community violence exposure on trauma symptomology. Study limitations and implications for intervention are discussed. _____
Title: Association between exposure to community violence and children's perceptions of safety. (violence, safety). Author(s): Collins, Kathryn S., U South Carolina, US Source: Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, Vol 60(4-A), Oct 1999. pp. 1327. Publisher: US: Univ Microfilms International Abstract: There is an abundance of literature that recognizes the impact of violence on children; however, there is little to direct researchers and practitioners in developing effective solutions to the long-lasting effects of such violence. Experts agree that establishing safety is the first, and foremost, aspect of working with children who are faced with violence and trauma. Perceptions of safety, interwoven in the fabric of a child's life from birth, mediate coping skills and resiliency as well as aid in growth, learning, and interpersonal relationships. The purposes of this study have been to explore the frequency and degrees of children's exposure to violence in a sample of school children and to extend knowledge about children's perceptions of safety. Understanding this association may provide knowledge needed to create more comprehensive and effective prevention, treatment, education, and policy initiatives that addresses the impact of violence exposure on children. A research design combining quantitative and qualitative methods was used. The Children's Report of Exposure to Violence (CREV) (Cooley, Turner, and Beidel, 1995) served as a screening device to provide a sample of participants from an overall pool of 139 children ages nine to 12 with various levels of exposure to violence for a second sample of participants. The second sample of 30 children who participated in in-depth interviews were classified into two groups based on their responses to the CREV: the top 25 percent and the bottom 25 percent of exposure to violence groups. The interview data were analyzed through thematic analysis utilizing the constant comparative method. The experiences that children have with exposure to violence influences the dimensions of children's perceptions of safety. Through analysis, these perceptions are found to consist of five dimensions. Safety for these children depends on: (1) Knowing the types of harm or danger that jeopardize their safety, (2) Knowing who the specific people are in their lives who help them to feel safe, (3) Relying on these individuals for protection from harm and danger, (4) Identifying places of safety, and (5) Self reliance. _____
Title: Coping skills, strengths, and needs as perceived by adult offspring and siblings of people with mental illness: A retrospective study. Author(s): Kinsella, Karen B., Texas Women's U, Dept of Family Sciences, Denton, TX, US; Anderson, Ruth A.; Anderson, William T. Source: Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, Vol 20(2), Oct 1996. pp. 24-32. Publisher: US: Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal Abstract: Examined coping skills, needs, and self-perceived strengths gathered through subjective interview data with 10 adult offspring and 10 adult siblings (all Ss aged 27-56 yrs) of people with mental illness (schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or major depression). Distinctions were made between positive and negative coping skills, and several themes in coping skills were reported, including constructive escape, seeking support, objectifying the illness, acquiring information, spiritual faith, internalization of emotions, self-censoring behavior, and self-isolation. Four themes also emerged from interview data regarding needs: information or explanation, support groups, individual attention and attention to emotions, and inclusion in the treatment process. All Ss had perceived themselves to have grown in a positive way from their experiences, despite the adversities they had endured. Self-perceived strengths reported include independence or self-reliance, ability to create, empathy, resiliency, assertiveness, and spiritual and life perspective. _____
Title: Keeping sane in a mad world. Author(s): Overholser, Winfred, Saint Elizabeths Hosp., Washington, D. C. Source: Journal of Pastoral Care, 9, 1955. pp. 129-136. Publisher: US: Journal of Pastoral Care Abstract: After a description of the insecure nature of the modern world, the author warns that there is no necessity for pessimism, since the resiliency of the human organism may be able to handle the many crisis situations of contemporary man. "Man has gained assurance, self-reliance, and strength, and despite all the trials and threats and strains of the present we may still be confident that civilization will not only survive but will continue to progress onward and upward." _____
Title: Resilience in Parentally Bereaved Children and Adolescents Seeking Preventive Services. Author(s): Lin, Kirk K., Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, US
Sandler, Irwin N., Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, US, irwin.sandler@asu.edu
Ayers, Tim S., Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, US
Wolchik, Sharlene A., Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, US
Luecken, Linda J., Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, US Address: Sandler, Irwin N., Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, P.O. Box 871104, Tempe, AZ, US, irwin.sandler@asu.edu Source: Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, Vol 33(4), Dec 2004. pp. 673-683.
Journal URL: https://www.erlbaum.com/shop/tek9.asp?pg=products&specific=1537-4416 Publisher: US: Lawrence Erlbaum
Abstract: This study examined environmental stress, family, and child variables that differentiate resilient children and adolescents from those with mental health problems following the death of a primary caregiver. The community-based sample included 179 bereaved children ages 8 to 16 years and their surviving caregivers who completed a test battery of measures before participating in a prevention program. Forty-four percent of bereaved children were classified as resilient and 56% as affected based on the absence of clinically significant mental health problems on at least 1 measure as reported by either the child, surviving caregiver, or teacher on standardized measures of mental health problems. Results of multivariate analyses indicated that bereaved resilient versus affected status was a function of both family and child variables. Higher levels of caregiver warmth and discipline and lower levels of caregiver mental health problems were family-level variables that significantly differentiated resilient children from affected children. Bereaved children's perceptions of less threat in response to negative events and greater personal efficacy in coping with stress were child-level variables that differentiated resilient from affected status. Family and child variables were entered into a discriminant function analysis that correctly classified 72% of the sample. The findings are consistent with a model of resilience in which multilevel variables account for children's positive adaptation following exposure to adversity. _____
Record: 2
Title: Surviving Breast Cancer and Living with Lymphedema: Resiliency among Women in the Context of their Families. Author(s): Radina, M. Elise, Department of Design, Family, and Consumer Sciences, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, IA, US
Armer, Jane M., Sinclair School of Nursing, Columbia, MO, US Source: Journal of Family Nursing, Vol 10(4), Nov 2004. pp. 485-505. Publisher: US: Sage Publications
Publisher URL: http://www.sagepublications.com/ ISSN: 1074-8407 (Print) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1177/1074840704269847 Language: English Keywords: breast cancer; lymphedema; women; family stress; adaptation; resiliency Abstract: This study involves secondary analysis of an existing qualitative dataset (in-depth interviews with survivors [n = 6] and health professionals [n = 2], observations of a support group [n = 3], and field notes). Based on previous findings from this dataset, new questions arose regarding why only some of post-breast cancer lymphedema women who were interviewed appeared resilient within the context of their families. In the present study, we reinvestigate this dataset using the resiliency model of family stress, adjustment, and adaptation to guide our investigation via the construction of an a priori template used in analyses. Three stressors are identified that contribute to the vulnerability of these women. Resiliency in the women is characterized as adjustment, adaptation, or crisis. The present findings provide a foundation for assisting women with lymphedema and their families and underscore practitioners' need to serve the patient and the family. Conference: International National Lymphedema Network Conference, 5th, Chicago, IL, US Conference Notes: An earlier version of this article was presented at the aforementioned conference. _____
Record: 3
Title: Socioeconomic Adversity, Educational Resilience, and Subsequent Levels of Adult Adaptation. Author(s): Schoon, Ingrid, City University, London, United Kingdom
Parsons, Samantha, Institute of Education, London, United Kingdom
Sacker, Amanda, Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom Source: Journal of Adolescent Research, Vol 19(4), Jul 2004. pp. 383-404. Publisher: US: Sage Publications
Publisher URL: http://www.sagepublications.com/ ISSN: 0743-5584 (Print) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1177/0743558403258856 Language: English Keywords: socioeconomic adversity; school adjustment; adolescence; social-psychological factors; school to work transition; adult adaptation Abstract: The aim of this article is to determine the extent to which individual, family, and contextual resources influence the school adjustment of 16-year-old teenagers and to investigate their consequent adult attainments at age 33. Adopting a longitudinal perspective, the experiences of more than 9,000 socially advantaged and disadvantaged young people are compared. The study shows that socioeconomic adversity is a significant risk factor for educational failure and that it influences consequent adjustment in work and health-related outcomes. Various social-psychological factors can counterbalance such adversity. In particular, parental educational aspirations for their child are significantly associated with educational resilience among less privileged individuals. The study confirms the long-term stability of secondary school adjustment. It is concluded that the factors and processes that modify the impact of adversity are context specific and that their influences have to be studied in the context in which they operate. _____
Record: 4
Title: Attachment and loss: A test of three competing models on the association between attachment-related avoidance and adaptation to bereavement. Author(s): Fraley, R. Chris, University of Illinois, Chicago, IL, US
Bonanno, George A., Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, NY, US Address: Fraley, R. Chris, Department of Psychology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 603 E. Daniel Street, Champaign, IL, US
Source: Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol 30(7), Jul 2004. pp. 878-890. Publisher: US: Sage Publications
Publisher URL: http://www.sagepublications.com/ ISSN: 0146-1672 (Print) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1177/0146167204264289 Language: English Keywords: loss; attachment-related avoidance; bereavement adaptation Abstract: It is widely assumed that emotionally avoidant or defensive individuals will have a difficult time adjusting to the loss of a loved one. However, recent research suggests that defensive individuals tend to adapt quite well to loss. Such findings pose a number of challenges to attachment theory--a theory that has traditionally held that emotional avoidance is indicative of poor psychological adjustment. In this article, the authors argue that contemporary models of individual differences in adult attachment allow the derivation of at least three competing hypotheses regarding the relationship between avoidant attachment and adaptation to loss. These hypotheses are tested using two-wave data on 59 bereaved adults. Results indicate that whereas some avoidant individuals (i.e., those who are fearfully avoidant) have a difficult time adapting to the loss of a loved one, other avoidant adults (i.e., those who are dismissingly avoidant) show a pattern of resilience to loss. _____
Record: 5
Title: Adaptation and Resilience in Early Life: Implications of the New Developmental Neurobiology for Clinical Practice. Author(s): Trout, Michael, Infant-Parent Institute, Champaign, IL, US, mtrout@infant-parent.com Address: Trout, Michael, Infant-Parent Institute, 328 North Neil, Champaign, IL, US, mtrout@infant-parent.com Source: Journal of Prenatal & Perinatal Psychology & Health, Vol 18(4), Sum 2004. pp. 287-300.
Journal URL: http://www.birthpsychology.com Publisher: US: Association for Pre-and Perinatal Psychology and Health (APPPAH)
Publisher URL: http://www.birthpsychology.com ISSN: 1097-8003 (Print) Language: English Keywords: early experience; developmental outcome; mental process; developmental neurobiology; clinical practice; behavior Abstract: Growing research interest in the connections between early experience and developmental outcome--in combination with technological innovations that have made possible measurement of mental process in a way never before possible--have wiped out the last vestiges of dichotomous (mind-body) thinking, and have opened the way to new understandings about how we become the people we become. This paper summarizes some aspects of the new research in developmental neurobiology, and suggests implications for understanding the behavior of both children and adults. In particular, it is suggested that most behavior--including behavior that typically warrants a diagnosis--often turns out to be strikingly adaptive, often evidences resilience, and is, therefore worthy of respect. _____
Record: 6
Title: Cognitive Transformation as a Marker of Resilience. Author(s): Tebes, Jacob Kraemer, Division of Prevention and Community Research, Consultation Center, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, US, tebes@yale.edu
Irish, Julie T., Institute for Clinical Research and Health Policy Studies, Tufts-New England Medical Center, Department of Medicine, Boston, MA, US
Vasquez, Mary Jo Puglisi, Good Shepard Rehabilitation Hospital, Allentown, PA, US
Perkins, David V., Department of Psychological Science, Ball State University, Muncie, IN, US Address: Tebes, Jacob Kraemer, Division of Prevention and Community Research, Consultation Center, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 389 Whitney Ave., New Haven, CT, US, tebes@yale.edu Source: Substance Use & Misuse, Vol 39(5), Apr 2004. pp. 769-788.
Journal URL: http://www.dekker.com/servlet/product/productid/JA Publisher: US: Marcell Dekker
Publisher URL: http://www.dekker.com ISSN: 1082-6084 (Print) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1081/JA-120034015 Language: English Keywords: cognitive transformation; resilience; coping behavior; adverse events; life experiences; bereavement Abstract: Individuals often report positive, transformative changes in response to adversity. Cognitive transformation involves a turning point in a person's life characterized by: (1) the recognition that coping with adversity resulted in new opportunities; and, (2) the reevaluation of the experience from one that was primarily traumatic or threatening to one that is growth-promoting. Cognitive transformation often signifies enhanced adaptation to adverse circumstances, and thus, is a marker of resilience. The present study examined the relationship of cognitive transformation to indicators of resilience among 35 acutely bereaved young adults and a nonbereaved comparison group. Findings strongly supported the hypothesis that transformation predicts resilience, and may reduce one's risk trajectory to enhance adaptation. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for research on resilience, and on recovery from acute or chronic adverse circumstances, including addiction. _____
Record: 7
Title: Adjustment to College Among Trauma Survivors: An Exploratory Study of Resilience. Author(s): Banyard, Victoria L., University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, US, vlb@cisunix.unh.edu
Cantor, Elise N., University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, US Address: Banyard, Victoria L., Department of Psychology, University of New Hampshire, 10 Library Way, Durham, NH, US, vlb@cisunix.unh.edu Source: Journal of College Student Development, Vol 45(2), Mar-Apr 2004. pp. 207-221.
Journal URL: http://www.myacpa.org/pub/pub_jocsd.cfm Publisher: US: ACPA Executive Office
Publisher URL: http://www.myacpa.org/ ISSN: 0897-5264 (Print) Language: English Keywords: college adjustment; school transition; traumatic stress; coping strategies; social support Abstract: Researchers have examined students' adjustment to college-why some students make the transition successfully, whereas others struggle or leave school after only a short time. Efforts to support students through this transition must draw upon a more complete understanding of variables that place students at risk for a stressful transition and protective factors that promote positive adaptation. The current study is an examination of a group of students potentially at risk for a stressful transition to college: students who are survivors of traumatic stress. For the purposes of this research, trauma is defined broadly as a range of events that overwhelm an individual's coping capacities and involves threats of serious injury or death to self or someone close to the individual. This examination was of variation in the transition to college among a sample of trauma survivors, of the roles of social relationships and supports, coping, and making meaning of the trauma in explaining variance in resilience in adjusting to college. _____
Record: 8
Title: Psychobiological Mechanisms of Resilience and Vulnerability: Implications for Successful Adaptation to Extreme Stress. Author(s): Charney, Dennis S., National Inst of Mental Health, Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, Bethesda, MD, US, charneyd@nih.gov Address: Charney, Dennis S., Mood and Anxiety Disorders Program, NIMH, 15K North Dr., Rm. 101, Bethesda, MD, US, charneyd@nih.gov Source: American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol 161(2), Feb 2004. pp. 195-216.
Journal URL: http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/ Publisher: US: American Psychiatric Assn
Publisher URL: http://www.appi.org ISSN: 0002-953X (Print) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1176/appi.ajp.161.2.195 Language: English Keywords: extreme stress; psychobiology; adaptation; reward; fear conditioning & extinction; social behavior; models; resilience; vulnerability; stress-related psychopathology; neurochemistry; neural mechanisms Abstract: Most research on the effects of severe psychological stress has focused on stress-related psychopathology. Here, the author develops psychobiological models of resilience to extreme stress. An integrative model of resilience and vulnerability that encompasses the neurochemical response patterns to acute stress and the neural mechanisms mediating reward, fear conditioning and extinction, and social behavior is proposed. Eleven possible neurochemical, neuropeptide, and hormonal mediators of the psychobiological response to extreme stress were identified and related to resilience or vulnerability. The neural mechanisms of reward and motivation (hedonia, optimism, and learned helpfulness), fear responsiveness (effective behaviors despite fear), and adaptive social behavior (altruism, bonding, and teamwork) were found to be relevant to the character traits associated with resilience. The opportunity now exists to bring to bear the full power of advances in our understanding of the neurobiological basis of behavior to facilitate the discoveries needed to predict, prevent, and treat stress-related psychopathology. _____
Record: 9
Title: Les survivants de l'Holocauste et leurs enfants: Les enfants survivants - mais pas leurs enfants -souffrent d'expériences traumatiques liées à I'Holocauste. Translated Title: Holocaust child survivors and their offspring: Child survivors - but not their children - suffer from traumatic holocaust experiences. Author(s): Sagi-Schwartz, Abraham, Center for the Study of Child Development, Université de Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Van I. Jzendoorn, Marinus, Université de Leiden, Hollande, Netherlands
Grossmann, Klaus E., Institut de psychologie, Regensbourg, Germany
Joels, Tirtsa, Center for the Study of Child Development, Université de Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Grossmann, Karin, Université de Regensbourg, Allemagne, France
Scharf, Miri, Center for the Study of Child Development, Université de Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Koren-Karie, Nina, Center for the Study of Child Development, Université de Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Alkalay, Sarit, Center for the Study of Child Development, Université de Haifa, Haifa, Israel Source: Devenir, Vol 16(2), 2004. pp. 77-107.
Journal URL: http://mhsrvweb.medhyg.ch/revues/r_premiere.php4?revue=5 Publisher: Switzerland: Georg-Eshel Editions Medecine et Hygiene
Publisher URL: http://www.medhyg.ch ISSN: 10158154 (Print) Language: French Keywords: holocaust survivors; offspring; child survivors; traumatic holocaust experiences; resilience Abstract: During the Holocaust, extreme trauma was inflicted on child survivors. Two questions are central to the current investigation: First, do Holocaust child survivors still show marks of their traumatic experiences, even after more than 50 years? Second, has the trauma been passed on _____
Record: 1
Title: Young children with mentally ill parents: Resilient developmental systems. Author(s): Seifer, Ronald, E. P. Bradley Hosp, Brown U, Providence, RI, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 29-49. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: parental mental illness; resilience; resilience model; infants; young children Abstract: (from the chapter) In this chapter, the author describes the current state of knowledge regarding resilience in infants and young children who have a parent with mental illness. He begins by addressing some basic issues regarding how general models of resilience may be adapted to the particular circumstances of infants and toddlers. Following this, he summarizes relevant research that may be interpreted in a resilience framework. The author concludes with a summary model of processes identified to date in this population, along with some commentary on how well the resilience model will ultimately serve to aid understanding in this field. _____
Record: 2
Title: Risk and protective factors for children of depressed parents. Author(s): Hammen, Constance, Dept of Psychology, U California, Los Angeles, CA, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 50-75. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: depressed parents; mood disorders; risk factors; protective factors; resilience; intervention; children Abstract: (from the chapter) It is now well established that depression runs in families and that maternal depression may be associated with a variety of maladaptive outcomes in children. Because of the high frequency of depression worldwide--especially among women of child-bearing age, this is a high-risk problem of considerable magnitude, and one with the potential for transmission through multiple generations. The topic of resilience, however, has been relatively neglected despite the fact that many, if not most, offspring of depressed parents do not apparently suffer major negative consequences--and despite the potential yield of preventive interventions for children at risk. This chapter explores the contribution of the mood disorders field to resilience research, following a brief analysis of the depression high-risk research and a discussion of risk and protective factors and mechanisms. Finally, implications and directions for future research and intervention are presented. _____
Record: 3
Title: Resilience and vulnerability among sons of alcoholics: Relationship to development outcomes between early childhood and adolescence. Author(s): Zucker, Robert A., Dept of Psychiatry, U Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, US
Wong, Maria M., Dept of Psychiatry, U Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, US
Puttler, Leon I., Dept of Psychiatry, U Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, US
Fitzgerald, Hiram E., Dept of Psychology, Michigan State U, East Lansing, MI, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 76-103. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: childhood characteristics; early adaptation; behavioral correlates; resilience; vulnerability; later outcomes; preschool-age sons; alcoholics Abstract: (from the chapter) In this chapter, the authors examine the behavioral correlates of resilience and vulnerability among initially preschool-age children of alcoholics, as a way of identifying those differentiating factors that relate to later positive outcomes. They use a person-centered rather than a variable-centered approach in defining who are and who are not "resilient children." They then track whether these early childhood characteristics remain in place over time, and examine their developmental correlates during middle childhood and adolescence. In contrast to the earlier work in this area, which has looked primarily at relational factors, they have focused heavily on characterization of the early quality of the child's adaptation intellectually, temperamentally, and symptomatically. They then ask: To what extent are the early adaptation differences still detectable at later points in childhood? To the extent that they are detectable, do they present differently at later ages? To the extent that they are not, is there evidence that the initial resilient adaptation makes a difference, even in interaction with an adverse environment? And last, what factors, both early on as well as later in development, mediate the later outcomes? _____
Record: 4
Title: Maternal drug abuse versus other psychological disturbances: Risks and resilience among children. Author(s): Luthar, Suniya S., Dept of Human Development, Teachers Coll, Columbia U, New York, NY, US
D'Avanzo, Karen, School of Medicine, Yale U, New Haven, CT, US
Hites, Sarah, Dept of Psychology, U Vermont, Burlington, VT, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 104-129. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: maternal drug abuse; risk; resilience; child social-emotional well-being; adjustment patterns; community factors; family factors; child factors Abstract: (from the chapter) The primary thesis of this chapter is one that flies in the face of rampant stereotypes: that maternal drug abuse is not necessarily more damaging to children's social-emotional well-being than are other maternal psychiatric disorders. It is widely believed that women who abuse illicit drugs are not just dissolute as individuals but also deplorable as parents, with children who, more so than offspring of parents with other mental illnesses, are disruptive, disturbed, or dysphoric. Empirical evidence supporting such beliefs, however, is tenuous at best. In this chapter, the authors present data from their own ongoing research to elucidate adjustment patterns among children whose mothers have histories of drug abuse. Their primary objective is to disentangle the degree to which risks to children accrue from maternal histories of drug abuse per se, rather than from various other adversities with which this disorder typically coexists. A second objective is to determine the degree to which different forces, at the levels of the community, family, and child, might mitigate or exacerbate the risks faced by children of drug abusers--an exercise or pragmatic value in light of the magnitude of the risks. _____
Record: 5
Title: Resilience to childhood adversity: Results of a 12-year study. Author(s): Fergusson, David M., Dept of Psychological Medicine, Christchurch School of Medicine, Christchurch, New Zealand
Horwood, L. John, Dept of Psychological Medicine, Christchurch School of Medicine, Christchurch, New Zealand Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 130-155. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: childhood adversity; long-term resilience; young adults Abstract: (from the chapter) Data from a 21-yr longitudinal study, in a birth cohort of 1,265 children, were used to examine the relationships between childhood adversity (CA) and subsequent externalizing and internalizing responses. The key issues addressed include the following: (1) To what extent is cumulative exposure to family adversity during childhood (0-16 yrs) associated with the development of psychopathology in adolescence and young adulthood (16-21 yrs)? (2) How many young people with high exposure to family adversity avoid developing later psychopathology? (3) What mechanisms underlie this escape from adversity? There was clear evidence to suggest that, with increasing exposure to CAs, there were marked increases in rates of both internalizing and externalizing problems in adolescence and young adulthood. However, not all of those exposed to high levels of CA developed later externalizing or internalizing, suggest the presence of resilience processes. The effects of exposure to CA on later outcomes were modified by factors that mitigated or exacerbated these risks. In all cases the data fit main effects models, suggesting that the factors that contributed to resilience among those exposed to high levels of CA were equally beneficial for those not exposed to these adversities. _____
Record: 6
Title: Sequelae of child maltreatment: Vulnerability and resilience. Author(s): Bolger, Kerry E., Dept of Human Development & Family Studies, U Wisconsin, Madison, WI, US
Patterson, Charlotte J., Dept of Psychology, U Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 156-181. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: vulnerability; resilience; maltreated children Abstract: (from the chapter) In this chapter, the authors review issues of vulnerability and resilience among maltreated children based on evidence form their program of research in this area. They begin by providing an overview of the research from which this evidence is drawn. They then present their major findings on the prevalence and stability of resilience among maltreated children; risks associated with different dimensions of maltreatment; pathways implicated in their effects; and protective factors that moderate the influence of maltreatment. They conclude with discussions of the implications of their research findings for theory and research on resilience as well as for intervention and policy. _____
Record: 7
Title: Risk and resilience in children coping with their parents' divorce and remarriage. Author(s): Hetherington, E. Mavis, Dept of Psychology, U Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, US
Elmore, Anne Mitchell, Westat Inc, Rockville, MD, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 182-212. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: parental divorce; remarriage; risk; resilience; vulnerability; coping; adverse outcomes; protective factors; children Abstract: (from the chapter) In the past 50 yrs in the US, marriage has become a more optional, less permanent institution. Marriage is being delayed, rates of marital formation are decreasing, and divorce, births to single mothers, and cohabitation have increased. As the divorce rate increased in the 1970s, the remarriage rate for women began to decline. About 65% of women and 75% of men now remarry. What is striking following divorce and remarriage is not the inevitability but the diversity in the experiences and outcomes for parents and children. In the chapter, the authors describe vulnerability factors that increase the likelihood of adverse outcomes and protective factors that buffer children or foster resilience in coping with their parents' marital transitions. Some of the vulnerability or protective processes that are catalyzed by stresses associated with parental divorce or remarriage lie in individual characteristics of the child, some in family relationships, and some in experiences and relationships external to the family. _____
Record: 8
Title: Correlational and experimental study of resilience in children of divorce and parentally bereaved children. Author(s): Sandler, Irwin, Prevention Research Ctr, Arizona State U, Phoenix, AZ, US
Wolchik, Sharlene, Prevention Research Ctr, Arizona State U, Phoenix, AZ, US
Davis, Caroline, Prevention Research Ctr, Arizona State U, Phoenix, AZ, US
Haine, Rachel, Prevention Research Ctr, Arizona State U, Phoenix, AZ, US
Ayers, Tim, Prevention Research Ctr, Arizona State U, Phoenix, AZ, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 213-240. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: parental divorce; parental death; bereavement; resilience; vulnerability; protective factors; children; adolescents; correlational research; experimental research Abstract: (from the chapter) This chapter presents research on resilience of children and adolescents who have experienced 2 major disruptions of the nuclear family, parental divorce and parental bereavement. The 2 research programs share a common research paradigm in which there is an iterative relationship between correlational and experimental studies. The chapter first presents a theoretical framework that specifies alternative models of the influence of vulnerability and protective factors on the resilience of children experiencing significant adversities. The authors then discuss correlational research on key constructs in the theoretical framework: adversity, and child and family protective and vulnerability factors. Finally, experimental studies of resilience are presented, which test the effects of changing these protective and vulnerability factors to reduce negative mental health outcomes. Although the research programs on bereavement and divorce were not specifically designed as comparative, findings that indicate common pathways to resilience, as well as pathways that are unique to each adversity, are discussed. _____
Record: 9
Title: Rethinking resilience: A developmental process perspective. Author(s): Yates, Tuppett M., Inst of Child Development, U Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, US
Egeland, Byron, Inst of Child Development, U Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, US
Sroufe, L. Alan, Inst of Child Development, U Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 243-266. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: resilience; developmental process; consistent & supportive care; poverty; adaptation; competence; children Abstract: (from the chapter) Emphasizes the importance of a theoretically grounded approach to the study of resilience, using the literature on children reared in poverty to illustrate their central arguments. Adopting an organizational perspective on development, the authors argue that a developmental history of consistent and supportive care engenders early competence, which, in turn, plays a critical role in later adaptation, one that has been heretofore underappreciated in the prevailing literature on resilience. The authors begin with a review of the literature on the deleterious effects of poverty on children's development. They then outline the organizational model of development and its theoretical application to the study of risk and resilience. The third section presents the current state of knowledge regarding salient protective factors for children reared in poverty. Next, they suggest that, because of the transactional nature of development, an early history of positive adaptation is a powerful source of enduring influence on children's adaptation. Current empirical support for the salience of an early history of competence as a protective resource, its operational definition within an organizational framework, and the theoretical basis for its construction in early childhood are also discussed. _____
Record: 10
Title: Poverty and early childhood adjustment. Author(s): Owens, Elizabeth B., Inst of Human Development, U California, Berkeley, CA, US
Shaw, Daniel S., U Pittsburgh, Dept of Psychology, Pittsburgh, PA, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 267-292. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: poverty; vulnerability; adjustment; resilience; childhood development; male children Abstract: (from the chapter) Childhood poverty appears to be an enduring and entrenched problem, resistant to most social and economic policies intended to lift families above the poverty line. How is it that some children are vulnerable to the effects of poverty, whereas others demonstrate positive adjustment (i.e., resilience)? Attempts to answer this question are at the core of this chapter. The authors' primary objective is twofold: to summarize findings from relevant literatures regarding factors associated with better or worse adjustment among young impoverished children, and to showcase one effort toward the identification of such factors using data from the Pitt Mother and Child Project, a longitudinal study of adjustment and psychopathology among young boys from low-income families. In addition to identifying predictive factors, the authors consider whether they are associated with outcomes among all children in the sample or just those at highest risk. They also test the limits of resilient adjustment across time, and discuss implications their findings have for both basic developmental science and early intervention programs. _____
Record: 11
Title: Emerging perspectives on context specificity of children's adaptation and resilience: Evidence from a decade of research with urban children in adversity. Author(s): Wyman, Peter A., Dept of Psychiatry, U Rochester, Rochester, NY, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 293-317. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: context specificity; adaptation; resilience; at-risk urban children Abstract: (from the chapter) This chapter reviews highlights from a decade of research with urban children to contrast the explanatory power of studies guided by 2 perspectives on context-specific adaptation. Specifically, the chapter examines whether several child-based attributes (e.g., affective responsiveness and efficacy beliefs) that were identified as beneficial to adaptation for aggregated samples of at-risk children have differential effects on adaptation for children in varying contexts. This chapter is selective and considers only a few context differences in an effort to provide some insights on how future studies of risk and resilience may benefit from more attention to context specificity. The present focus is on several context differences in social settings (e.g., level of family functioning, peer group influences) and in individuals (e.g., degree of children's conduct disturbance) that are salient for urban children. _____
Record: 12
Title: Holistic contextual perspectives in risk, protection, and competence among low-income urban adolescents. Author(s): Seidman, Edward, Psychology Dept, New York U, New York, NY, US
Pedersen, Sara, Psychology Dept, New York U, New York, NY, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 318-342. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: risk; vulnerability; protection; competence; adolescent development; well-being; developmental outcomes; low income; urban environments Abstract: (from the chapter) What are the characteristic ways in which risk, vulnerability, protection, and competence have been studied? What are the implicit assumptions underlying this body of research and scholarship? This chapter addresses these questions in the domain of adolescent development, with an emphasis on how a set of alternative assumptions and related research and data analytic strategies can both enrich our understanding of youth well-being and increase our ability to promote positive developmental outcomes. _____
Record: 13
Title: Overcoming the odds? Adolescent development in the context of urban poverty. Author(s): Cauce, Ana Mari, Dept of Psychology, U Washington, Seattle, WA, US
Stewart, Angela, Dept of Psychology, U Washington, Seattle, WA, US
Rodriguez, Melanie Domenech, Dept of Psychology, U Washington, Seattle, WA, US
Cochran, Bryan, Dept of Psychology, U Washington, Seattle, WA, US
Ginzler, Joshua, Dept of Psychology, U Washington, Seattle, WA, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 343-363. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: inner-city youth; adolescent development; urban poverty; risk; resilience; school achievement; dropout; behavior problems Abstract: (from the chapter) Adolescence, a time of rapid biological, emotional, and social changes, brings with it a heightened developmental risk. This risk may be highest for adolescents growing up in poverty within our country's inner cities. In addition to the normative stress of adolescence, poor inner-city youth face multiple stressors and adversities. These factors, in turn, have been linked to a host of negative outcomes. Nonetheless, some inner-city youth survive these circumstances, overcoming adversity to become productive members of society. This chapter highlights research that helps in understanding the dynamic process of risk and resilience during this difficult transition in an even more difficult context. The chapter begins with a definition of adolescence and urban poverty and then lays out a rationale for focusing on 2 outcomes, school achievement and dropout and behavior problems of an internalizing or externalizing nature. Next it identifies salient factors that increase vulnerability or protective processes for youth growing up in urban poverty. The chapter ends with a discussion of resilience, emphasizing the limits of resilient adaptation and implications of this for theory and research on resilience, as well as for interventions that may better the lives of these vulnerable youth. _____
Record: 14
Title: Adaptation among youth facing multiple risks: Prospective research findings. Author(s): Sameroff, Arnold, Ctr for Human Growth & Development, U Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, US
Gutman, Leslie Morrison, Ctr for Human Growth & Development, U Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, US
Peck, Stephen C., Inst for Research on Women & Gender, U Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 364-391. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: developmental competence; problem behaviors; multiple risks; ecological analysis; social surroundings; environmental risk; predictive model; children Abstract: (from the chapter) This chapter examines a model for predicting developmental competence based on an ecological analysis of the child's social surroundings as well as the child's capacities. Although it is important to understand the specific processes that lead to specific maladjustments, from an epidemiological standpoint the best predictors of problem behaviors seem to be a cumulative risk score that reflects statuses in the full range of ecological subsystems of the child. Moreover, the kind of risk appears to be secondary to the number of negative factors. When the strengths of the individual youth are added to the predictive model, they do not overcome the effects of high environmental risk. _____
Record: 15
Title: Positive adaptation among youth exposed to community violence. Author(s): Gorman-Smith, Deborah, Inst for Juvenile Research, Dept of Psychiatry, U Illinois, Chicago, IL, US
Tolan, Patrick H., Inst for Juvenile Research, Dept of Psychiatry, U Illinois, Chicago, IL, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 392-413. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: community violence; exposure; risks; adaptation; youth Abstract: (from the chapter) In this chapter, the authors review the current literature on exposure to community violence, with specific attention to implications for positive adaptation among exposed youth. First, they review the extent of the problem (i.e., the number of children exposed) and the associated risks. They then address factors related to differences in outcome, including the mechanisms through which more positive adaptation might occur. With the goal of informing intervention and prevention efforts, the authors distinguish between those factors through which violence exposure appears to relate to differences in risk outcomes (i.e., mediators or mechanisms through which exposure exerts impact) and those factors associated with the differences found (i.e., moderators, which include characteristics of the child, family, community, or the incident itself). Suggestions for future research are outlined, and implications for intervention and prevention are discussed. _____
Record: 16
Title: Perceived discrimination and resilience. Author(s): Szalacha, Laura A., Ctr for the Study of Human Development, Brown U, Providence, RI, US
Erkut, Sumru, Ctr for Research on Women, Wellesley Coll, Wellesley, MA, US
García Coll, Cynthia, Ctr for the Study of Human Development, Brown U, Providence, RI, US
Fields, Jacqueline P., Ctr for Research on Women, Wellesley Coll, Wellesley, MA, US
Alarcón, Odette, Ctr for Research on Women, Wellesley Coll, Wellesley, MA, US
Ceder, Ineke, Ctr for Research on Women, Wellesley Coll, Wellesley, MA, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 414-435. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: racism; perceived discrimination; prejudice; vulnerability; protective factors; resilience; adjustment; minority youth; mainland Puerto Ricans Abstract: (from the chapter) This chapter focuses on vulnerability and protective factors implicated in the psychosocial adjustment of minority youth. The authors concentrate on the external manifestations of the social mechanisms of racism, discrimination, and prejudice. In considering discrimination as a risk factor, their concern in this chapter is with phenomenological experiences of discrimination and not with the more invisible, but potentially more powerful, impact of institutional racism on minority mental health. Mainland Puerto Ricans serve as the authors' referent group, as their own research has concentrated on the developmental trajectories of Puerto Rican children and adolescents. After providing a brief overview on adjustment patterns among Puerto Rican youth, they review, in turn, research evidence on the negative effects of perceived discrimination, on processes that might underlie (or mediate) its effects, and on vulnerability and protective factors that may moderate its effects. They conclude with suggested directions for future research on the effects of discrimination on ethnic minority youth. _____
Record: 17
Title: Promoting resilience through early childhood intervention. Author(s): Reynolds, Arthur J., School of Social Work, U Wisconsin, Madison, WI, US
Ou, Suh-Ruu, School of Social Work, U Wisconsin, Madison, WI, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 436-459. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: early childhood interventions; resilience promotion; social-environmental risk exposure; economic disadvantage; protective factors; developmental outcomes; children Abstract: (from the chapter) In this chapter, the authors review evidence about the effects of early childhood interventions in promoting resilience for children who have experienced high levels of social-environmental risk due to economic disadvantage. They address several contemporary issues including the measurement of resilience, interventions as protective factors, and the pathways through which the effects of interventions lead to positive developmental outcomes. _____
Record: 18
Title: Toward building a better brain: Neurobehavioral outcomes, mechanisms, and processes of environmental enrichment. Author(s): Curtis, W. John, Mt Hope Family Ctr, U Rochester, Rochester, MN, US
Nelson, Charles A., Inst of Child Development, U Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 463-488. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: developmental cognitive neuroscience; environmental enrichment; preschool programs; human brain development; cognitive abilities; behavior Abstract: (from the chapter) This chapter attempts to derive a model of an effective human analogue to environmental enrichment. Given the relative lack of success of enrichment interventions with humans, considered together with the overwhelming effects seen in animal enrichment studies, it would appear that a reevaluation of human enrichment interventions from a developmental cognitive neuroscience perspective would elucidate the reasons underlying the successes and failures of human enrichment programs thus far. In addition, such a framework might provide theoretical guidance in the development of more effective human enrichment interventions. The model of human enrichment set forth attempts to extrapolate from the extensive animal literature on enrichment the mechanisms and type of impact that enriched preschool programs may have on human brain development, cognitive abilities, and behavior. _____
Record: 19
Title: Genetic Influences on risk and protection: Implications for understanding resilience. Author(s): Rutter, Michael, Social, Genetic & Developmental Psychiatry Research Ctr, Inst of Psychiatry, London, United Kingdom Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 489-509. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: genetic factors; resilience; gene-environment interactions; gene-environment correlations; psychological functioning Abstract: (from the chapter) In this chapter, evidence on genetic factors is presented to highlight the importance of considering the extensive array of possible mediating and moderating mechanisms in resilience. Central to this chapter are 2 notions: gene-environment interaction, which refers to genetically influenced differences in individuals' sensitivity to particular environmental factors, and gene-environment correlations, which refer to genetically influenced differences in individuals' liability of exposure to particular environmental factors. The chapter begins with a presentation of some relevant examples from biology, followed by a consideration of gene-environment interactions and gene-environment correlations in relation to individuals' psychological functioning. Discussions in the next section illustrate how particular risk indices can have diverse roots and can operate through various mediating processes, using examples of passive, active, and evocative person-environment correlations as well as evidence of sex and developmental differences. The chapter concludes with an appraisal of critical directions for future work, both for scientific inquiry and for interventions. _____
Record: 20
Title: Research on resilience: An integrative review. Author(s): Luthar, Suniya S., Dept of Human Development, Teachers Coll, Columbia U, New York, NY, US
Zelazo, Laurel Bidwell, Dept of Human Development, Teachers Coll, Columbia U, New York, NY, US Source: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Luthar, Suniya S. (Ed); pp. 510-549. New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: resilience; research; risk conditions; risk modifiers; prevention; intervention Abstract: (from the chapter) The contributors to this volume have provided a wealth of information on children facing different life adversities, and in this concluding chapter the authors provide a distillation of 2 sets of themes. The first encompasses conceptual and methodological issues in studies of resilience, which is a process or phenomenon reflecting positive child adjustment despite conditions of risk. Contrasting with the focus on empirical research in the 1st half of the chapter, the 2nd half is focused on applied issues. At the heart of much resilience research is the desire to uncover salient protective and vulnerability processes that, if targeted in interventions, would substantially improve at-risk children's odds of doing well in life. Accordingly, the authors integrate findings on risk modifiers from all chapters in the book, discussing them in order of relative salience across different risk conditions and deriving associated directions for interventions. This is followed, in turn, by consideration of prevention efforts that are focused on mental health as well as behavioral resilience, directions for future applied research, and guidelines for future interventions designed within the resilience framework. _____
Record: 21
Title: Rising from the ashes: Stories of recovery, adaptation and resiliency in burn survivors. Author(s): Williams, Nancy R., School of Social Work, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, US, nwilliam@arches.uga.edu
Davey, Maureen, Department of Child and Family Development, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, US
Klock-Powell, Kathryn, Department of Child and Family Development, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, US Address: Williams, Nancy R., School of Social Work, University of Georgia, 419 Tucker Hall, Athens, GA, US, nwilliam@arches.uga.edu Source: Social Work in Health Care, Vol 36(4), 2003. pp. 53-77.
Journal URL: http://www.haworthpressinc.com/store/product.asp?sku=J010 Publisher: US: Haworth Press
Publisher URL: http://www.haworthpress.com ISSN: 0098-1389 (Print) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1300/J010v36n04_04 Language: English Keywords: burn injured people; burn survivors; burn experience; physical recovery; emotional recovery; spiritual recovery; recovery process Abstract: Burn-injured people are confronted with enormous challenges in their recovery process on a physical, emotional, and spiritual level. Despite the magnitude of trauma, there has been a dearth of research exploring adult burn survivors' perception of their experiences. In this qualitative study, eight burn survivors (aged 31-51 yrs; ethnicity is noted) were interviewed. Influences that impacted their experiences such as perceived memories, time, and age when burned were distinguished from the multiple themes of losses to identity, life style, relationships and physical functioning as well as themes of adaptation, coping and resiliency. Drawing from the burn survivors' stories of recovery can provide insights for social workers and other health care professionals in serving this compelling population more effectively. _____
Record: 22
Title: Entwicklungsorientierte Betrachtung chronischer Krankheiten im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Translated Title: Developmental view of chronic illnesses in childhood and youth. Author(s): Noeker, Meinolf, Zentrum für Kinderheilkunde, Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany
Petermann, Franz, Zentrum für Klinische Psychologie und Rehabilitation, Universität Bremen, Bremen, Germany Address: Noeker, Meinolf, Zentrum fur Kinderheilkunde, Universitat Bonn, Adenauer Allee 119, 53113, Bonn, Germany Source: Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, Vol 51(3), 2003. pp. 191-229. Publisher: Germany: Verlag Ferdinand Schoningh
Publisher URL: http://www.schoeningh.de ISSN: 1431-8172 (Print) Language: German Keywords: chronic condition; developmental processes; developmental psychopathology; multifinality; equifinality Abstract: The paper aims at the foundation of a developmental approach to chronic conditions. Chronicity of disorder necessarily implies developmental processes. Development emerges within the interaction between course of disease and treatment, on the one side, and specific adaptation processes, on the other side. Epidemiological trends are outlined illustrating that the frequently cited statement of a general increase in prevalence of chronic conditions, in fact results from differential, disease-specific effects of medical progress on prevalence rates on particular disease entities. The issue of disease-specificity of adaptation to a chronic condition has yielded contradictory findings which have promoted a controversy on their proper interpretation (categorical versus non-categorial approach). We argue that inconsistency of reported findings results from methodological pitfalls, on the one side, and true heterogeneity of developmental and adaptational pathways in the individual, on the other side. The concepts of multifinality and equifinality are taken from developmental psychopathology to clarify the relation between the risks of a specific disease and the quality of outcome. Multifinality means that the very same underlying condition may lead to very heterogeneous outcomes via interindividually varying developmental and adaptational pathways. The outcome may vary largely among patients suffering from the very same disease ranging from secondary psychopathology to favourable stimulation of resilience. The complementary concept of equifinality means that patients with divergent risk constellations, i.e. different chronic conditions, may finally develop towards very similar outcomes. As a result, prediction of individual outcome only by knowledge of the particular chronic condition is very limited but encompasses multiple risk factors and resources moderating the adaptation process. Our developmental approach to chronic condition is exemplified by recent research on etiology, course and outcome in childhood asthma. _____
Record: 23
Title: Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities. Author(s): Luthar, Suniya S., (Ed), Dept of Human Development, Teachers Coll, Columbia U, New York, NY, US Source: New York, NY, US: Cambridge University Press, 2003. xxxi, 574 pp. ISBN: 0-521-80701-8 (hardcover)
0-521-00161-7 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: resilience; vulnerability; adversity; adaptation; adjustment; family risks; community risks; children Abstract: (from the cover) Childhood resilience is the phenomenon of positive adaptation despite significant life adversities. While interest in resilience has burgeoned in recent years, there remains considerable uncertainty about what exactly research has taught us about this phenomenon. Integrated in this book are contributions from leading scientists who have each studied children's adjustment across risks common in contemporary society. Chapters in the first half of the book focus on risks emanating from the family; chapters in the second half focus on risks stemming from the wider community. All contributors have explicitly addressed a common set of core themes, including the criteria they used to judge resilience within particular risk settings, the major factors that predict resilience in these settings, the limits to resilience (vulnerabilities coexisting with manifest success), and directions for interventions. In the concluding chapter, the editor integrates evidence presented throughout all preceding chapters to distill (a) substantive considerations for future research and (b) salient directions for interventions and social policies based on accumulated research knowledge. _____
Record: 24
Title: Resilience: Learning from people with disabilities and the turning points in their lives. Series Title: Praeger series in health psychology Author(s): King, Gillian A., (Ed), Thames Valley Children's Centre, London, ON, Canada
Brown, Elizabeth G., (Ed), Thames Valley Children's Centre, London, ON, Canada
Smith, Linda K., (Ed), Thames Valley Children's Centre, London, ON, Canada Source: Westport, CT, US: Praeger Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc, 2003. xiv, 204 pp. ISBN: 0-275-97943-1 (hardcover) Language: English Keywords: resilience; people with disabilities; cerebral palsy; spina bifida; attention deficit disorders; adaptation Abstract: (from the book) This volume brings to life the nature of resilience and adaptation to change by describing turning points, or critical experiences, in the lives of people with disabilities. People with cerebral palsy, spina bifida, or attention deficit disorder are interviewed. They describe events and experiences that changed their lives and pinpoint which factors helped or hindered their adaptation. Interweaving these compelling stories with popular thought and research evidence, the authors show how understanding the resilience of people with disabilities may help all readers create meaning in life and become resilient. Rich in personal detail, yet strong in its presentation of academic literature and other nonfiction works related to resilience, this volume will appeal to a wide variety of readers, from people who wonder about the meaning of life, to the parents of children with disabilities and organizations that deliver services to them, to students and professors in the fields of psychology, education, social work and occupational therapy. _____
Record: 25
Title: Mediated generalized problem solving to enhance resiliency in children with a chronic illness. Author(s): Fuller, Mary M., U South Florida, US Source: Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, Vol 63(5-A), Dec 2002. pp. 1707. Publisher: US: Univ Microfilms International
Publisher URL: http://www.il.proquest.com/umi/ ISSN: 0419-4209 (Print) Order Number: AAI3052644 Language: English Keywords: mediated problem solving; resiliency; chronic illness; children Abstract: Resiliency, for the purpose of this study, was defined as the process or capacity of parents and children for successful adaptation despite challenging circumstances. The dimensions of resiliency are social competency, risk factors, protective factors, stress, and coping. The interaction of these dimensions performs a major role in facilitating the ability to overcome adversity and achieve positive outcomes. Problem solving is a specific coping method that will increase the probability of selecting the most effective behavioral outcome. As behavioral outcomes improve, social competencies increase, which in turn increases successful adaptation. This research project used a multiple baseline designed across participants to determine the influence of a specific mediated problem solving method with families raising a chronically ill child. Five children identified with a chronic illness, along with their parents, participated in this study. This investigation demonstrated that as parents improved their interaction patterns, their child's behavioral outcomes showed improvement and there was an increase in their social competencies. These results were determined by direct observation of parent and child's behaviors and review of secondary psychometric data collection. The mediated problem solving method included learning mediated generalization procedures to prevent relapse the development of maladaptive behaviors following the discontinuance of treatment and any potential future maladaptive behaviors. Further investigation will need to be conducted to evaluate the relapse of maladaptive behaviors; however, results of this investigation demonstrated the effectiveness of the treatment condition. _____
Record: 26
Title: Chronic illness as a family process: A social-developmental approach to promoting resilience. Author(s): Shapiro, Ester R., U Massachusetts, Psychology Dept, Gaston Inst for Latino Research, Boston, MA, US, ester.shapiro@umb.edu Address: Shapiro, Ester R., U Massachusetts, Psychology Dept, Gaston Inst for Latino Research, 100 Morrissey Blvd, Boston, MA, US, ester.shapiro@umb.edu Source: Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol 58(11), Nov 2002. Special issue: Chronic illness. pp. 1375-1384.
Journal URL: http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0021-9762/ Publisher: US: John Wiley & Sons
Publisher URL: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/ ISSN: 0021-9762 (Print)
1097-4679 (Electronic) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1002/jclp.10085 Language: English Keywords: chronic illness; social-developmental approach; resilience; family process; clinical interventions; daughters Abstract: Describes a social-developmental approach to interventions in chronic illness using naturally occurring processes of change during family life-cycle transitions to promote more positive developmental outcomes. A case example of a 13-yr-old daughter with complex, chronic health problems and developmental disabilities illustrates clinical interventions designed to promote family resilience during the entry into adolescence and a transition in schooling. This approach involves focusing on the family's own definition of the current problem and relevant history, constructing a multidimensional, coherent story of the illness and its impact that recognizes stressors yet highlights strengths, and normalizing their strategies for stability under circumstances of developmental stress. These interventions with mother, daughter, and family helped improve health efficacy, communication toward mutual understanding and shared problem solving, and better use of existing and new resources to enhance current and future developmental adaptation. _____
Record: 27
Title: The impact of political violence: Adaptation and identity development in Bosnian adolescent refugees. Author(s): Gibson, Eliza C. Source: Smith College Studies in Social Work, Vol 73(1), Nov 2002. pp. 29-50. Publisher: US: Smith College School for Social Work ISSN: 0037-7317 (Print) Language: English Keywords: political violence; war; exile; adaptation; identity development; Bosnian adolescent refugees; resilience; trauma responses; temperament; cultural & family pride; loyalty; cultural meaning Abstract: This qualitative study explored the impact of the war in the former Yugoslavia and the experiences of forced exile on the processes of adaptation and identity development for 5 Bosnian adolescent refugees (aged 14-18 yrs) who have lived the US for at least 2 years. Sources of resilience were found in individual temperament, adaptive responses to trauma, and cultural and family pride and loyalty. Because current research on political violence tends to focus on psychopathological outcomes and PTSD sequelae, particular attention was given to examining cultural meanings of trauma and development, as well as the health-promoting forces that can occur in response to extreme trauma. Findings suggest several implications for future research as well as implications for mental health professionals working with refugees. _____
Record: 28
Title: Healthy adaptation in parents of children with autism: Implications of personality and resilience. Author(s): Chehrazi, Avazeh, Alliant International U., US Source: Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, Vol 63(2-B), Aug 2002. pp. 1017. Publisher: US: Univ Microfilms International
Publisher URL: http://www.il.proquest.com/umi/ ISSN: 0419-4217 (Print) Order Number: AAI3043463 Language: English Keywords: healthy adaptation; parents; autistic children; personality; resilience Abstract: Healthy adaptation in parents of children diagnosed with autism or Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD) was investigated. Due to the behavioral difficulties exhibited by some children with autism, the level of cognitive impairment, the lack of communication abilities, and the lack of social skills, parents of children with autism and PDD are continually confronted with ongoing stressors to which adaptation is required. Research indicates that healthy adaptation can be achieved in parents of children with autism or PDD if social relations for the parents and appropriate levels of involvement in the life of the child are maintained (Waltz, 1999). The current study was designed to investigate the role of personality domains, using the Five Factor Model of personality (Costa & McCrae, 1992), and resilience levels in parents raising children with autism. Seventy-eight primary caregivers of young children diagnosed with autism or PDD who were enrolled in an intensive behavioral home program were assessed on personality domains, resiliency and measures of healthy adaptation. It was found that parental resilience was associated with healthy adaptation, with the maintenance of social relationships being of particular importance. The personality structure defined as Neurotic was associated with unhealthy levels of social isolation, and the personality structure defined as Agreeable was associated with overall healthy adaptation patterns. Parental involvement was not found to be directly associated with any predictor variable. Individuals with specific personality domains and those characterized as resilient are more prone to adapt successfully to the stressors associated with raising a child with autism. Such indicators of healthy adaptation should be identified more specifically, with the hopes that such traits can be incorporated into parent training programs to foster healthy adaptation for all parents. _____
Record: 29
Title: The Family Adaptation Model: Examination of dimensions and relations. Author(s): Drummond, Jane, U Alberta, Faculty of Nursing, Child & Family Resiliene Research Program, Edmonton, AB, Canada
Kysela, Gerald M., U Alberta, AB, Canada
McDonald, Linda, U Alberta, Faculty of Education, AB, Canada
Query, Brenda, U Alberta, Faculty of Nursing, Edmonton, AB, Canada Source: Canadian Journal of Nursing Research/Revue canadienne de recherche en sciences infirmieres, Vol 34(1), Jun 2002. pp. 29-46. Publisher: Canada: McGill Univ/School of Nursing ISSN: 0844-5621 (Print) Language: English Keywords: family adaptation model; theories; resilience; protective processes; families Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to summarize the theoretical underpinnings and present the model analyses used in the development and evaluation of the Family Adaptation Model. Resilience theory, with its components of protective processes and vulnerability processes, underlies the assumptions of the model. Data analyses are presented from 2 samples in which survey methodology, post-test only experimental designs were implemented. Causal relations hypothesized by the model were examined using the larger of the 2 data sets. Mothers' (aged 16-53 yrs) data only were used in these structural equation modelling analyses. Moderate support for the linear dimensions of the model was found. When the paths predicted by the theory were tested, insignificant results were produced. Recent expert reviews of adaptation concepts and research approaches were used to explore the meaning of the null findings when testing the paths of the model in contrast to the success of the model when used to develop practice approaches with families. _____
Record: 30
Title: Challenges facing child protection. Author(s): Lachman, Peter, North West London Hosps NHS Trust, Northwick Park Hosp, Middlesex, United Kingdom
Poblete, Ximena, North West London Hosps NHS Trust, Northwick Park Hosp, Middlesex, United Kingdom
Ebigbo, Peter O., U Nigeria, Coll of Medicine, Dept of Psychological Medicine, Enugu, Nigeria
Nyandiya-Bundy, Sally, U Zimbabwe, Dept of Psychology, Harare, Zimbabwe
Bundy, Robert P., U Zimbabwe, Dept of Psychology, Harare, Zimbabwe
Killian, Bev, U Natal, Dept of Psychology, Pietermaritzberg, South Africa
Doek, Jaap, Vrije U, Amsterdam, Netherlands Address: Lachman, Peter, Northwick Park Hosp, North West London Hosps NHS Trust, Watford Road Harrow, Middlesex, United Kingdom Source: Child Abuse & Neglect, Vol 26(6-7), Jun 2002. pp. 587-617.
Journal URL: http://www.elsevier.com/inca/publications/store/5/8/6/ Publisher: Netherlands: Elsevier Science
Publisher URL: http://elsevier.com ISSN: 0145-2134 (Print) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1016/S0145-2134(02)00336-8 Language: English Keywords: child abuse; child protection; specific constraints; poverty; HIV/AIDS infection; war; child protection programs; outcomes; children's rights Abstract: The challenges facing children in the 21st century are immense and will need to be faced if we are to achieve the goal of child protection for all. Three specific constraints on child protection are examined in this article: poverty, HIV/AIDS infection, and war. The authors use their experience in Africa to raise issues of resilience and adaptation, dangers to child protection programs, and possible solutions. Poverty can be both financial and psychological, and this affects the effect of prevention programs. In many African and Asian countries, the AIDS pandemic has changed the social structure of society with AIDS orphans and children infected and affected by HIV/AIDS becoming more common. The impact has devastating effects on the way we view child protection and in particular child sexual abuse. The consequences of posttraumatic stress resulting from war needs to be addressed, and the development of programs that place children in the center of relief programs to foster a culture of child protection is essential. Finally, the article notes that the picture is not overly pessimistic and examines the achievements in the field of children's rights that underpin all programs aimed at protecting children and the future need to consolidate successes achieved. _____
Record: 31
Title: Dimensions of the construct of resilience and adaptation among inner-city youth. Author(s): Tiêt, Quyên Q., Columbia U/New York State Psychiatric Inst, Dept of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, New York, NY, US, quyen.tiet@med.va.gov
Huizinga, David, U Colorado, Inst of Behavioral Science, Denver, CO, US Address: Tiêt, Quyên Q., VAPA/Stanford U, VAPA HCS (152), 795 Willow Road, Menlo Park, CA, US, quyen.tiet@med.va.gov Source: Journal of Adolescent Research, Vol 17(3), May 2002. pp. 260-276. Publisher: US: Sage Publications
Publisher URL: http://www.sagepublications.com/ ISSN: 0743-5584 (Print) Language: English Keywords: resilience; adaptation; inner-city youth; youth development; high-risk neighborhoods; psychosocial functioning; self-esteem; academic performance; drug use; gangs; delinquency Abstract: This article reviews the conceptualization of resilience and empirically examines the dimensionality of a construct of resilience and adaptation by using structural equation modeling techniques. As part of a longitudinal study of youth development, youth ages 11, 13, and 15 and their parents who lived in high-risk neighborhoods in the Denver metropolitan area were interviewed. The construct of resilience and adaptation was measured by six indicators: psychosocial functioning, self-esteem, academic performance, absence or low level of drug use, gang involvement, and delinquent activities. Factor analyses using LISREL suggest the existence of at least two latent constructs of resilience and adaptation: adjustment and low level of antisocial behavior. Implications of the findings are discussed. _____
Record: 32
Title: Psychological resiliency and coping with domestic violence. Author(s): Hopper, Elizabeth Kay, Saint Louis U., US Source: Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, Vol 62(9-B), Apr 2002. pp. 4220. Publisher: US: Univ Microfilms International
Publisher URL: http://www.il.proquest.com/umi/ ISSN: 0419-4217 (Print) Order Number: AAI3027677 Language: English Keywords: psychological resiliency; coping; battered women; domestic violence Abstract: Within the past several decades, relationship violence has been illuminated as a major societal problem. Researchers have identified psychological sequelae of partner abuse and have begun to examine factors that are associated with psychological adjustment in battered women. Despite the documentation of a range of sequelae of domestic violence, little attention has been paid to differences in the adjustment levels of battered women. There is a wide variability in the individual adaptation levels of victims of domestic violence. The current project seeks to explain some of the variation in the psychological functioning of battered women through an examination of the women's abuse characteristics, personal and environmental resources, and coping strategies used to deal with their abuse. There are three major objectives to this study: (a) an examination of variations in battered women's adjustment; (b) the identification of resiliency factors which lead to better adjustment in battered women; and (c) an examination of the mechanisms by which these resiliency factors operate. Theory suggests a number of resiliency factors (including personal and environmental resources) that may influence battered women's adjustment; however, it does not clearly specify the pathways by which these factors affect adjustment. Personal and environmental resources may act directly on adjustment. They may operate indirectly through an influence on coping. Finally, these resiliency factors may buffer the effects of domestic violence on adjustment. The current study identified a number of resiliency factors for battered women. It examined potential direct and indirect relationships between resiliency factors and adjustment in battered women, and examined the potential moderating role of resiliency variables. Unique resiliency models were developed for generalized distress and PTSD symptoms. Implications and future research are discussed. _____
Record: 33
Title: Journey of resilience and adaptation: Counselling Vietnamese people. Author(s): Hart, Justin, Research & Training Ctr for Community Development, justinhart@hotmail.com Address: Hart, Justin, justinhart@hotmail.com Source: Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, Vol 23(1), Mar 2002. pp. 20-28.
Journal URL: http://www.blackwellpublishers.co.uk/asp/journal.asp?ref=0814-723X Publisher: Australia: Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy
Publisher URL: http://www.anzjft.com ISSN: 0814-723X (Print) Language: English Keywords: Vietnamese Australians; cultural knowledge & attitudes; resilience; adaptation; history; cultural variables; counselling; Vietnam War; refugees; helping professionals Abstract: Despite the substantial number of Vietnamese residing in Australia, many Australians' knowledge and attitudes are still shaped by the Vietnam War and the resulting exodus of refugees. This superficial impression contributes little to a meaningful understanding of the rich heritage of the Vietnamese people. The purpose of this article is to broaden the understanding of helping professionals who come into contact with Vietnamese Australians, so as to evoke responses that are more sensitive, appropriate and useful. A brief history of Vietnam is followed by an exploration of historical insights and cultural variables that aid our understanding of the people, and by an examination of the applicability of these factors for counselling. _____
Record: 34
Title: Language, spirituality and cultural empathy: A response to Justin Hart. Author(s): Hoang, Le (Hoang thi Tuyet Le) Address: Hoang, Le (Hoang thi Tuyet Le), 61 Portland Street, Enfield, NSW, Australia, 2136 Source: Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, Vol 23(1), Mar 2002. pp. 29-31.
Journal URL: http://www.blackwellpublishers.co.uk/asp/journal.asp?ref=0814-723X Publisher: Australia: Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy
Publisher URL: http://www.anzjft.com ISSN: 0814-723X (Print) Language: English Keywords: Vietnamese Australians; cultural knowledge & attitudes; resilience; adaptation; history; cultural variables; counselling; Vietnam War; refugees; helping professionals Abstract: Responds to the original article by J. Hart (see record 2002-13856-004) which attempted to broaden the understanding of helping professionals who come into contact with Vietnamese Australians. The current author shares his own experiences in this area, some of which support Hart's argument, others of which bring out different aspects of therapeutic relevance. _____
Record: 35
Title: Hardiness and social support as predictors of stress in mothers of typical children, children with autism, and children with mental retardation. Author(s): Weiss, Mary Jane, Rutgers,The State U of New Jersey, New Brunswick, NJ, US, mjweiss@home.com Address: Weiss, Mary Jane, Rutgers, The State U of New Jersey, Douglass Developmental Disabilities Ctr, 25 Gibbons Circle, New Brunswick, NJ, US, mjweiss@home.com Source: Autism, Vol 6(1), Mar 2002. pp. 115-130. Publisher: US: Sage Publications
Publisher URL: http://www.sagepublications.com/ ISSN: 1362-3613 (Print) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1177/1362361302006001009 Language: English Keywords: social support; hardiness; stress symptoms; mothers; autism; mental retardation Abstract: Assessed the effects of social support and hardiness on the level of stress in 24-48 yr old mothers of typical children and children with developmental disabilities. Ss included 40 mothers of children with autism, 40 mothers of children with mental retardation, and 40 mothers of typically developing children. Children were aged 2-7 yrs. Results of questionnaires indicate there were significant group differences in ratings of the stress effects depression, anxiety, somatic complaints and burnout. Both hardiness and social support were predictive of successful adaptation. The relationships among hardiness, support and coping are discussed. _____
Record: 36
Title: Understanding family resilience. Author(s): Patterson, Joän M., U Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, US Address: Patterson, Joän M., U Minnesota School of Public Health, 1300 South 2nd St, Suite 300, Minneapolis, MN, US Source: Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol 58(3), Mar 2002. Special issue: A second generation of resilience research. pp. 233-246.
Journal URL: http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0021-9762/ Publisher: US: John Wiley & Sons
Publisher URL: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/ ISSN: 0021-9762 (Print)
1097-4679 (Electronic) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1002/jclp.10026 Language: English Keywords: family resilience; family protective processes; family risk processes; stress & coping theory; family adaptation Abstract: Families, as social systems, can be considered "resilient" in ways that parallel descriptions of individual resilience. In this article, the conceptualization of family-level outcomes as a prerequisite for assessing family competence, and hence their resilience, is presented relative to the unique functions that families perform for their members and for society. The risk and protective processes that give rise to resilience in families are discussed in terms of family stress and coping theory, with a particular emphasis on the family's subjective appraisal of their sources of stress and their ability to manage them. An effort is made to distinguish two perspectives on resilience: exposure to significant risk as a prerequisite for being considered resilient versus promotion of strengths for all families in which life in general is viewed as risky. Implications for practitioners and policy makers in working with families to promote their resilience are discussed. _____
Record: 37
Title: Heroes in the nursery: Three case studies in resilience. Author(s): Rak, Carl F., Cleveland State U, Doctoral Studies Dept, Cleveland, OH, US Address: Rak, Carl F., Cleveland State U, Doctoral Studies Dept, Cleveland, OH, US Source: Journal of Clinical Psychology, Vol 58(3), Mar 2002. Special issue: A second generation of resilience research. pp. 247-260.
Journal URL: http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0021-9762/ Publisher: US: John Wiley & Sons
Publisher URL: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA/ ISSN: 0021-9762 (Print)
1097-4679 (Electronic) Digital Object Identifier: 10.1002/jclp.10027 Language: English Keywords: supportive & nurturing parent in early life; defense; adaptation; development of resilience in later life Abstract: This article examines the therapeutic work in three cases ( an 11 yr old boy, a 17 yr old girl, and an adult male) to study the impact of a supportive and nurturing parent early in life upon the development of resilience. The close analysis of the clinical material of each client's personal narrative is the primary source. The metaphor of "heroes in the nursery" is posited as a vehicle for enhancing understandings of the development of resilience and a continuum from defense through adaptation to resilience. Each case provides additive meaning to recent studies that elevate the importance of the memories of parents to the development of resilient responses of children later in life. Each case reveals specific dimensions of the impact of heroes in the nursery which extend our understandings of resiliency in children and adolescents as a proactive response to stress, trauma, and loss. _____
Record: 38
Title: How do successful female African-American high school graduating seniors speak about their experiences that helped them to graduate from high school? Author(s): Douglas, Valencia Francesca, Harvard U., US Source: Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, Vol 63(6-A), Jan 2002. pp. 2189. Publisher: US: Univ Microfilms International
Publisher URL: http://www.il.proquest.com/umi/ ISSN: 0419-4209 (Print) Order Number: AAI3055846 Language: English Keywords: graduating seniors; high school students; women; Blacks Abstract: This paper is a phenomenological narrative case study of seven female African-American high school graduating seniors. Two theories were utilized. First, resiliency theory, defined as "the capacity for or outcome of successful adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances" (Masten et al, 1990, p. 425). It is theorized that resilient individuals have certain protective mechanisms operating in their lives when confronted with adverse conditions such as poverty, dysfunctional schools and/or families. Second, the theory of "resistance for survival and resistance for liberation:" strategies African American females use to resist negative sociopolitical realities associated with being female and black in a male dominated society, which often silence, oppress and/or deny their realities and voices (Robinson and Ward, 1991). In this study, I used the voices of the female students to analyze experiences. I sought to understand how the experiences of the participants led to their graduation. My analytic domains were the environments of the family experiences, social experiences, and the personal attitudes and disposition of the individual participants. I feel it is important to understand minority students, not as victims of marginal education but rather, as individuals who, on a daily basis navigate their educational lives within diverse learning environments. I conducted my research in a large, urban school district in the southwest. The school is in one of the poorest communities in the city and the student population is one hundred percent minority. A large number of students receive free or reduced lunch prices, and the attendance rate is only eighty-eight percent. I used a random sample process to recruit seven female, African American students for the study. The study findings confirmed that protective mechanisms were part of the participants' experiences. These mechanisms helped the participants to develop resilience which enabled them to overcome environments that posed significant risk factors. Further analysis identified participants' use of resistance strategies in their experiences. Their close relationships with their mothers helped them to develop resistance strategies. Their strategic use of resistance strategies is exemplified by their ability to ignore negative societal perceptions, based upon their poverty, race and gender, and graduate from high school. _____
Record: 39
Title: Family resilience and parental competence: Contributors to variation on child depression scores in divorced and intact families. Author(s): Wolfe, Lesa, U Calgary, Canada Source: Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social Sciences, Vol 62(12-A), 2002. pp. 4337. Publisher: US: Univ Microfilms International
Publisher URL: http://www.il.proquest.com/umi/ ISSN: 0419-4209 (Print) Order Number: AAINQ64847 Language: English Keywords: family resilience; parental competence; child depression; divorce Abstract: Many children whose parents divorce experience considerable distress before, during and after the divorce. Children experience both internal and external distress which may appear as depression and all of the features that are synonymous with this difficulty. Although numerous studies have been conducted in the area of divorce, past research on children of divorce focused primarily on the views of parents and teachers in relationship to child adjustment following divorce. This study focuses on children, parents and families who present for clinical treatment following divorce and offers a rare perspective of child functioning in relationship to divorce by examining the child's point of view. In addition, this study provides a systemic focus by investigating child, parent and family factors among divorced and intact families. This non-experimental survey research study included 79 parents and 79 children who experienced divorce and 71 parents and 71 children who had not experienced divorce. Children ranged in age from 6 to 12 and parents had been separated between less than 1 year to 13 years. Data were collected with the Parent Child Relationship Index, the Parenting Stress Index, The Family Index of Regenerativity and Adaptation-General, and the Children's Depression Rating Scale. Significant differences were found between divorced and non-divorced families on child depression scores, parenting stress, parent-child relationship, and family resilience. The findings raise questions for policy, clinical practice, and future research. _____
Record: 40
Title: Risk and resistance factors and adjustment in maternal caregivers of children with serious mental disorders. Author(s): Wilson, Lesley, Fielding Graduate Inst., US Source: Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, Vol 62(12-B), 2002. pp. 5983. Publisher: US: Univ Microfilms International
Publisher URL: http://www.il.proquest.com/umi/ ISSN: 0419-4217 (Print) Order Number: AAI3036370 Language: English Keywords: risk factors; resistance; maternal adjustment; maternal caregivers; seriously mentally ill children Abstract: Maternal caregivers of children who suffer from a serious mental disorder experience extraordinary stress and exhibit a variety of ways of coping and adjustment that ranges from successful adaptation to severe emotional distress. This study tested a theoretically based model of maternal adjustment that outlines multiple risk and resistance factors associated with caring for a seriously ill or disabled child (Wallander et al., 1989), including the intraindividual variable self-appraised problem-solving (Noojin, 1997). The interrelationship of demographic and illness-related parameters, self-appraised problem-solving ability, child behavior, perceived disability-related stress, coping style, and maternal adjustment were investigated. Findings support the robustness of the expanded theoretical model of risk and resistance factors and further understanding of the maternal caregiver's experience in raising a child with a serious mental disorder. Specifically, mothers reported adjustment difficulties that were significantly related to income, child behavior, self-appraised problem-solving ability, perceived disability-related stress, and coping style. _____
Record: 41
Title: Ethnic and minority parenting. Author(s): Coll, Cynthia García, Brown U, Education Dept, Ctr for the Study of Human Development, Providence, RI, US
Pachter, Lee M., U Connecticut, School of Medine, Div of General Pediatrics, Storrs, CT, US Source: Handbook of parenting: Vol. 4: Social conditions and applied parenting (2nd ed.). Bornstein, Marc H. (Ed); pp. 1-20. Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 2002. xxx, 410 pp. ISBN: 0-8058-3781-7 (hardcover) Language: English Keywords: ethnic background; minority parents; group derived processes; individual derived processes; contextually derived processes; deficit models; adaptations Abstract: (from the chapter) It is clear that the central issues for ethnic and minority parents reflect a complex combination of group, individual and contextually derived processes. Group processes are embodied in the traditional childbearing formulations on which parents draw according to their own ethnic background. Historically the literature on ethnic and minority parenting in the U.S. displays prevalence of deficit models, whereby parenting practices of ethnic and minority families have been conceptualized as those of "the other" group, which then are compared to the "standard" (defined as those displayed by Caucasian, middle-income, Northern European, American parents). In contrast, several approaches to the study of ethnic and minority parenting represent a deviation from the deficit model that has dominated most of the field until now, shifting away from a social pathological perspective to one emphasizing the resilience and adaptiveness of families under a variety of social and economic conditions. Within these frameworks, most goals of parenting may be seen as universal, but how these goals are accomplished may vary based on context. Research on ethnic and minority families needs to be integrated into normative views of parenting in general. _____
Record: 42
Title: Aging and sexual orientation. Series Title: Review of psychiatry; vol. 21, no. 4 Author(s): Kimmel, Douglas C., City U New York, City Coll, Dept of Psychology, New York, NY, US Source: Mental health issues in lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities. Jones, Billy E. (Ed); Hill, Marjorie J. (Ed); pp. 17-36. Washington, DC, US: American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2002. xx, 118 pp. ISBN: 1-58562-069-6 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: theoretical models; social support networks; ageism & heterosexism; sexual orientation; gay; lesbian; transsexual; bisexual Abstract: (from the chapter) Considers the dimensions of age and sexual orientation using three theoretical models: (1) survival of the fittest; (2) minority stress: resilience or pathological adaptation; and (3) multiple minority status. The author also examines the social network options open to the older person of sexual minority status, and the similarities and differences between ageism and heterosexism. _____
Record: 43
Title: Positive youth development: Thriving as the basis of personhood and civil society. Series Title: New directions for youth development: Theory practice research Author(s): Lerner, Richard M., Tufts U, Eliot-Pearson Dept of Child Development, MA, US
Brentano, Cornelia, Tufts U, Eliot-Pearson Dept of Child Development, MA, US
Dowling, Elizabeth M., Tufts U, Eliot-Pearson Dept of Child Development, MA, US
Anderson, Pamela M., Tufts U, Eliot-Pearson Dept of Child Development, MA, US Source: Pathways to positive development among diverse youth. Lerner, Richard M. (Ed); Taylor, Carl S. (Ed); et al; pp. 11-33. San Francisco, CA, US: Jossey-Bass, 2002. 169 pp. ISBN: 0-7879-6338-0 (paperback) Language: English Keywords: positive youth development; thriving; personhood; civil society; adolescent development; cultural components; prosocial behaviors; moral identity; civic identity Abstract: (from the book) This chapter describes the foundations for thriving during adolescence. According to developmental systems theories, thriving is conceptualized as adaptive regulation that involves mutually beneficial and sustaining exchange between individuals and contexts (e.g, family, peer group, or community). This process includes both universal structural components and culturally specific functional components. Thriving youth become productive adults through progressive enhancement of behaviors that reflect the structural value of contributing to civil society. An integrated moral and civic identity and a commitment to society beyond one's own existence enable youth to be agents of their own healthy development and of positive change in people and society. _____
Record: 44
Title: Deuil. Appropriation de compétences. Transformation. L'apport du PRIFAM au soutien de la résilience des familles. Translated Title: Grief: Adaptation of skills: Transformation: The way in which the Family Intervention Program PRIFAM supports the families of disabled children. Author(s): Pelchat, Diane, U Montréal, Faculté des Sciences Infirmières, Montreal, PQ, Canada
Lefebvre, Hélène, U Montréal, Faculté des Sciences Infirmières, Montreal, PQ, Canada
Damiani, Carole Source: Pratiques Psychologiques, Vol 1, 2002. Special issue: La résilience. pp. 41-52.
Journal URL: http://espritemps.free.fr/pratpsy/Pratpsy.htm Publisher: France: L'Esprit du Temps
Publisher URL: http://espritemps.free.fr/Acceuil.htm ISSN: 1269-1763 (Print) Language: French Keywords: grief; PRIFAM; family intervention services; disabled children; coping; social support; family therapy Abstract: Discusses the approach used by the Family Intervention Program PRIFAM to support the families of disabled children. PRIFAM uses a relationship-based model to help parents and families summon up their strengths and adapt to differences. Commonly held theories, values, and beliefs in the field of disability have been questioned, and a renewed emphasis has been placed on adaptation. The birth of a child with a disability is viewed in part as a learning experience that can empower |
